A Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility

A Definition of integrated fond certificate of indebtednessno(prenominal)adays, the association of the words fond and province has become increasingly frequent. But in avocation military personnel, there is another variant of these terms that prevail and it is the term merged hearty state (CSR). concord to Archie Carroll (2008 p.19)though the roots of the concepts that we know today as CSR catch been a long and wide-ranging history, it is much often than not a product of the twentieth centimeury, especially from the early 1950s up to the present time.Despite the item that the concept of CSR has been present for such a long time, researchers still do not sh ar a common rendering or set(p) of core principles (Andre Crane et al. 2008 p.4). This also brought about other questions on the interpretation of terms as being sociablely responsible and also is a unbendable exposed of being responsible towards society.According to Wood (1991, cited in Moir, 1991, p.2), the b asic idea of corporate mixer righteousness is that blood and society be interwoven rather than distinct entities. Businesses are often conductd to stool profit maximization for sole object glass and ignore its responsibilities towards society. Milton Friedman (1970) said that the notwithstanding one responsibility of business towards society is the maximization of salary to the shareholders within the legal framework and the ethical custom of the country. However conc reads of CSR send packing also be found, Dave Packard (Co-founder of Hewlett Packard Company in 1939, cited in Harvard Business Review, 2002, p.54) claims that the assumption that people reconstruct of companies altogether making money is wrong. He also adds thata group of people lodge together and last as an institution that is called a throne so that they are able to accomplish something collectively that they could not accomplish separately and simultaneously they make a contri exception to society (Dave Packard, 1939).Votaw (cited in Garigga and Mele, 2004, p.51) wrote that corporate complaisant responsibility means something, but not always the same thing to e trulybody. The diverging opinions brook be categorized in two of import gets of view one is that CSR is yet another means to maximise profit and the other is that CSR is here to help companies help society as a whole.CSR has been described in a occur of sundry(a)(a) ways. Below are given antithetical definitions of CSR bodied Social Responsibility is a commitment to improve community well-being through discretionary business practices and corporate resources. (Philip Kotler and Nancy Lee, Corporate Social Responsibility, Wiley, 2007)The accessible responsibility of business encompasses the scotch, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of fundamental laws at a given identify in time. (Archie B. Carroll, 1979)Shell We all need to assess the bushel our business makes on society and curb that we balance the economic, environmental and brotherly perspectives of everything we do (Moody-Stuart, 1999).The diagram beneath gives a visual description of what name CSR cum www6.miami.edu/ethics/pdf_files/csr_guide.pdfAccording to Lance Moir (2001),the area be by advocates of CSR increasingly covers a wide range of issues such as plant closures, employee likenesss, human rights, corporate ethics, community relations and the environment.Aspects of CSRDrivers of CSRDrivers, in this context, call to the reasons john the choice of a firm to adopt a to a greater extent socially acceptable behaviour. These reasons suffer be classified as being internal and external to the firm.Internal driversInternal drivers are the pressures that turn out from the internal environment of the firm. Examples of components that smoke exist the internal environment of a firm are, employees, suppliers, competitors, top management, and so forth Flatter organisations have considerably changed the approach towards how business was once done. Nowadays, employees put pressure on how the organization conducts business using certain social values (M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.9). They are more attracted by the non-material aspects of the organisation that employs them. Besides, employees pursuance a more socially responsible firm, managers now have the task to reconcile the profit-making need of the connection with the responsibility towards society. But as Haigh and Jones (2006) mentioned, for business managers, business is first. ODwyer (2003, cited in Haigh and Jones, 2006, p.2) said that social considerations come heartbeat and providing only that such considerations would not open an exploitable weakness. Haigh (2006) adds that the paradigm that managers face simply prevents overall improvements consistent with social welfare. The capacity to integrate CSR policies in the core activities of the firm can also act as a driver. According to Porter and van der Linde (2 000, cited in Haigh and Jones, 2006, p.2), CSR is competitive driver that requires appropriate resources. Integrating CSR in a companys activities can be a tedious process. The diagram at a lower place shows how CSR can be incorporated at different takes of the company.Source MVO Platform, (2002, illustrated in M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.10), Different intensities of CSRCSR can also be undertaken in a set of separate activities geared towards improving social welfare. This can take the form of sponsoring of sports activities or engaging in charitable activities.Another view to consider internal drivers to CSR is to consider them to be national drivers. The table below gives a number of different national CSR drivers and a brief description of each of them.Source Visser, W. (2008) CSR Drivers The Forces plastic Corporate Sustainability and Responsibility, CSR Inspiration Series, No. 3.External driversExternal drives refer to the external pressures that compel a firm to engage in CSR. T he external environment of a firm can let in merchandise structure, nodes, government, economic situations, competitors, etc. Businesses no chronic evolve in a static environment, threats are no longer limited to local competitors and the market is now a global one. Similarly, adopting the culture of foreign firms has become a mustiness and CSR is one of the important concerns of all firms in this century. Castells (2000, as cited in M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.7) says that globalization increases the splendor of social networks of a company on a worldwide floor. Moreover, consumers are more concerned by the accompaniment that whether the firm, to which they are loyal, is contributing to societys welfare. As Castells (2000, as cited in M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.7) mentions, a lot of information is obtained more rapidly by consumers and it is easier to keep in touch with the various activities undertaken by any firm. The government also contributes in making company conscious of thei r duties towards society. According to the European Union and MVO Platform (2002, as cited in M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.7), Governments are now engaging in the role of stimulating companies to be social responsible, not pressuring them.In M.G.V. Dongens 2006 base In search of the link in the midst of corporate social responsibility and legitimacy she enumerated a number of external factors that encouraged firm to adopt the concept of CSR. A few of these points areTransparency. A very important aspect for a company to be socially responsible is transparency. This can be include in the profit-factor but is more and more considered as a prerequisite for a company to be socially responsible. Due to new information sources, e.g. the internet, and the shift in the control mechanisms for organizations from purely governmental to include the organizations stakeholders, this revolution has an enormous impact on the visibility of an organizations business practices.(M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.8)Time . A shift can be recognized from purely focusing on short-term profits towards more long-term objectives, which is necessary beca recitation societal and environmental issues are mostly long-term issues. Therefore this shift in time-thinking is natural for CSR to be successful. (M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.8) here(predicate) also, external factors are often associated with international drivers. The table below describes some of themSource Visser, W. (2008) CSR Drivers The Forces Shaping Corporate Sustainability and Responsibility, CSR Inspiration Series, No. 3.In golf-club to link both national and international drivers the diagram below visually establishes a link between both of them.Source Visser, W. (2008) CSR Drivers The Forces Shaping Corporate Sustainability and Responsibility, CSR Inspiration Series, No. 3.3.2 Theories of CSR some(prenominal) authors have tried to grasp an unblemished idea of what is CSR by devising lays in order to get out understand the various factors inv olved and their impact. peerless of the first approaches to tackle CSR by means of a model was made in 1971 by the Committee for Economic Development (CED). It made use of deuce-ace concentric circles. The definition of the three circles was given in the Social Responsibilities of Business Corporation (1971) as followsThe familiar circle includes, the clear-cut basic responsibilities for the efficient execution of the economic function products, jobs and economic growthThe mediocre circle encompasses responsibility to exercise this economic function with a precise awareness of changing social values and priorities for standard with respect to environmental conservation, hiring and relations with employees, and more rigorous expectation of customers for information, fair interposition and protection from injuryThe outer circle outlines newly emerging and still amorphous responsibilities that business should assume to become more broadly involved in actively improving the social environmentafter this opening others were developed, but throughout time only a few of them prevailed. The first theory that must be considered is the pyramid of CSR developed by Carroll.The pyramid of corporate social responsibilityAccording to Carroll, the quaternsome main components or categories that constitute the CSR pyramid are Economic Responsibilities, Legal Responsibilities, Ethical Responsibilities and Philanthropic or Discretionary Responsibilities. The two tables below give a description of these four terms.Source Archie B. Carroll (1991), The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders, Business HorizonsSource Archie B. Carroll (1991), The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders, Business HorizonsThe theory of the pyramid relies on the fact the various components are stacked on each other, the economic responsibility being the base and the philant hropic responsibility being at the top. The logic behind the pyramid relies in the fact that firms are expected to aim for profit maximization but it must also cater for the other responsibilities in the pyramid, which is survey with the law, comply with rules of society and finally act as a good corporate citizen.The diagram below is a representation of Archie B. Carroll pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility.The Stakeholder theoryMoir (2001) refers to the stakeholder theory as being employ utilize as a basis to analyse those groups to whom the firm should be responsible. For Carroll (1991, cited as cited in M.G.V. Dongen, 2006 p.13), stakeholder concept personifies the social actors that organizations should consider with their CSR orientation. Stakeholders generally refer to the actors who are directly or sometimes indirectly pushed by the actions of a company. Freedman defines a stakeholder as any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of th e organizations objectives (Freeman, 198446). Stakeholders can be classified in two main categories primary and auxiliary stakeholders. Clarkson (1995 106, cited in L. Moir, 2001, p.8) gives the description of a primary stakeholder asone without whose continuing interlocking the corporation cannot survive as a going concern with the primary group including shareholders and investors, employees, customers and suppliers, together with what is delineate as the public stakeholder group the governments and communities that provide infrastructures and markets, whose laws and regulations must be obeyed, and to whom taxes and obligations may be due (Clarkson, 1995, p.106).Moir (2001, p.8) defines the secondary groups are defined asThose who influence or affect, or are influenced or affected by the corporation, but they are not engaged in transactions with the corporation and are not essential for its survivalSource Monique G. van Dongen (2006), In search of the link between corporate so cial responsibility and legitimacyThe stakeholder theory focuses on a practical approach that explains an organizations need to address the various responsibilities (Dongen 2006, p. 13). The stakeholder theory relies on determining the most important stakeholder for the company and its responsibilities towards that stakeholder.In order to determine how the choice should be made, Carroll (1991) established two main criteria which are power and legitimacy. Following Carrolls logic, in 1997, Michel et al develop a more detailed approach which includes a new dimension named urgency. The model develop was the the stakeholder salience modelPower the ability of those who possess power, to bring about the outcome that they desire (Mitchell et al., 1997).Legitimacy the assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed systems of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions (Suchman, 1995).Urgency exists when two conditions are met 1) w hen it is time-sensitive, and 2) when it is important or critical to the stakeholder (Mitchell et al., 1997).The salience model helps to divide stakeholders in different groups and each of these groups is classified on the basis of having one or more the supra characteristics. Mitchell (1997) defined the salience model as the degree to which managers gave importance to stakeholders claims. From this point of view, groups such as latent and expectant stakeholders were created and these groups were further subdivided on the basis of the number of characteristics they possessed. Moir state that firms would pay most attention to those legitimate stakeholder groups who have power and urgency (Moir, 2001, p.9). Following this logic, an example could be the reputation of a company will have a great importance when it interacts directly with the public. In relation with CSR, Patten (1992 as cited in L Moir, 2006 p.9) gave the following example concerning the possible fluctuations in the le vel of urgency environmental groups and issues became more urgent to oil firms following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. To sum up, stakeholder theory can help companies to point out stakeholders that can be sensible to CSR issues and generate a profit in these circumstances.3.2.1 Mapping of CSR theoriesIn addition to the above models, numerous other theories have been developed, but none of them gave an accurate framework which exactly defined what CSR was. Each and every writer who tried to build up a CSR theory ended up giving a personal opinion, hence creating confusion. Carroll (1994, p.14) described the situation asAn eclectic field with loose boundaries, multiple memberships, and differing training/perspectives broadly rather than foc apply, multidisciplinary wide breadth brings in a wider range of literature and interdisciplinary.In addition to the above mentioned theories, Frederick (1987, 1998) tried to classify CSR in four main categories namely CSR1, CSR2, CSR3 and CSR4. Oth er attempts to define theories can take the form of the concept of corporate citizenship by Altman (1998), Issues Management by Wartick and Rude (1986) and Wood (1991) and Brummer (1991) classification of four CSR theories found on six criteria. In order to harmonize all these different models Elisabet Garriga and Domenec Mele (2004) grouped all the actual theories under four main headings namely instrumental, political, integrative and ethical theories.Theories were placed in a group on the basis of their similitude, for example instrumental theories grouped models that were based on the assumption that organization are here only to make profits. The table below gives a brief summary of each group and the different theories composing them.Source Elisabet Garriga and Domenec Mele (2004), Corporate Social Responsibility Theories Mapping the Territory, p.62-633.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of engaging in CSRCSR is often view as a companys intention to do good for society, but there can also be times when behind the socially responsible mask the intentions are not the ones expected. In can be quite conflicting but although CSR is assumed to be good, it can have drawbacks. Advantages and disadvantages arising from CSR are as diverse as the welkin in which the practices are applied, for analysis purposes standard or most common pros and cons will be considered. prototypal pros or advantages of CSR will be considered.According to Bhattacharya et al. (2008), the first advantage of CSR is that in helps in the enlisting and pick process and more specifically within the competitive graduate student market. Kytle et al. (2005) continue by adding that CSR helps in risk management. Building a genuine culture of doing the right thing within a corporation can offset the risks of losing reputation because of any scandal or environmental accident (Kytle et al, 2005, p.10). Another clear atributed to CSR is brand differenciation. Paluszek (2005) says that CSR can play a role in building customer loyalty based on distinctive ethical values. CSR can help in building customer loyalty by helping them feel that the company with which they are involved care for them.It must also be added that CSR has a significant impact on customers as well. According to Berger et al. (1995, cited in Maignan and Ferrell, 2004) consumers show more fervent support to companies committed to cause-related marketing, practices that help the environment, or business ethics. Furthermore, the studies conducted by Lichtenstein et al., (2004) proved that CSR helped to develop an emotional attachment with the company and hence it helped in boosting the percentage of sales. Sen et al., (2006) continued by saying that those conscious of actual corporate social activities had more authoritative responses to, and stronger identification with, the organisation, increased demand for trade and investment intent and demand to get a job with this type of organisation than those unaware o f any initiative. In addition to the above advantages, others were create in the Investment News (2007) and they are listed belowProactive enforcement of stricter quality and environmental controls reduces the risk of contradict events (e.g. recalling defective products or fines for excessive polluting).Commitment to CSR increases the ability to attract and retain employees. Benefits include reduced turnover, recruitment and training cost.CSR practices enable corporations to be compliant on ethical issues and attract investors who enforce ethical filtersOne of the main disadvantages of CSR arises from the misuse of the initial concept behind it. Businesses are here to maximise profits and CSR is in direct conflict with this goal. As Malloy (2003) described corporations exist to provide products and/or services that produce profits for their shareholders. Another disadvantage attributed to CSR, is too use it as a marketing tool to promote the companys image. CSR can help companies to be more profitable. This can be proved by the action taken by British petroleum after the discovery of the global warming phenomenon and the promise to have a world beyond petroleum. Here also the investment News 2007 came with a list of arguments against CSR uptake on CSR dilutes the property available for shareholders.Corporate Management is not equipped to address social or environmental problems.Expenditure on CSR imposes additional costs which consequently reduce competitivenessExpenditure on CSR can only be made during periods of high profitability4.0 client ecstasyAccording to marketing literature, higher customer merriment improves financial performance by increasing the loyalty of existing customers, reducing price elasticities, great(p) marketing costs through positive word-of-mouth advertising, reducing transaction costs, and enhancing firm reputation (e.g., Anderson, Fornell, and Lehmann (1994), Fornell (1992), and Reichheld and Sasser (1990)). Many believe that c ustomer gaiety is the key to a business success. The advantages to the fact of obtaining comfort from customers are various but before considering all of them in details, a definition of the term must be given. node satisfactions definition varies in accordance to the domain in which it is used. For instance it will have a different meaning whether it is used in marketing literature or in other sectors. A definition of customer satisfaction from a service management point of view is that customer satisfaction refers to how the cognition of the customer affects the value received in a transaction or relationship where value can be defined as the perceived service quality compared to price and customer incurred acquisition costs (cited in Blanchard and Galloway, 1994 Heskett et al., 1990) in comparison to the expected value to be generated from transactions or relationships with competitors (Zeithaml et al., 1990). From the marketing point of view customer satisfaction will be d efined as a vital break of the strategy of an organization (Fornell et al. 2006) and a key driver of increased profits on the long-run and boosting market value (Gruca and Rego 2005).Link between CSR and customer satisfactionA number of studies link customers directly to CSR initiatives. In order to undertake a proper analysis, at least three major dimensions can be considered. The first being Scotts (1987 cited in Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006 p.3) institutional theory and the second stakeholder theory (Maignan, Ferrell, and Ferrell 2005) suggest that a companys actions supplication to the multidimensionality of the consumer as not only an economic being but also a member of a family, community, and country (Handelman and Arnold 1999). Basing themselves on these three approaches Daub and Ergenzinger (2005) developed the term generalized customer. It can be defined as people who are not only customers who care about the consumption experience but also actual or potential members of various stakeholder groups that companies need to consider (Daub and Ergenzinger, 2005 Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006, p.3). Generalized customers derive more satisfaction from the transaction which involves a firm which is socially responsible.The second dimension rely on the aspect that establishing the link between the two components is the fact that being highly active in the CSR domain creates a favorable context that positively boosts consumers evaluations of and it gives a favorable image of the firm (Brown and Dacin 1997 Grhan- Canli and Batra 2004 Sen and Bhattacharya 2001). Handleman and Arnold (1999) noted that consumers used the concept of positive word to mouth about firms that were committed to actions that were associated with institutional norms (1999, cited in Maignan and Ferrell, 2004). Studies by Berger and Kanetkar (1995), Barone et al. (2000) and Creyer and Ross (1997) resulted in the fact that consumers are willing to actively support companies committed to cause-r elated marketing, environmentally-friendly practices, or ethics (cited in Maignan and Ferrell, 2004). CSR initiatives constitute a key element of corporate identity that can induce customers to identify with the company. Indeed, Lichtenstein, Drumwright, and Bridgette (2004, p. 17) note that a way that CSR initiatives create benefits for companies appears to be by increasing consumers identification with the corporation and support for the company. Not surprisingly, place customers are more likely to be satisfied with a firms offerings (e.g., Bhattacharya, Rao, and Glynn 1995 Bhattacharya and Sen 2003).The third dimension examines the antecedents of customer satisfaction (Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006, p.3). One example of a key antecedent can be perceived value and that has been through empirical observation shown to promote customer satisfaction (Fornell et al. 1996 Mithas, Krishnan, and Fornell 2005b Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006). In the actual case, all else being equal, customers likely derive better perceived value and, consequently, higher satisfaction from a product that is made by a socially responsible company (Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006, p.4).Another antecedents that is known to impact on customer satisfaction is the knowledge of the customer himself. Jayachandran et al (2005) added that improving customer knowledge represents another antecedent that has been found to enhance customer satisfaction.Although the three dimensions above establish a link between CSR and customer Satisfaction it does not indicate whether it is a positive or a negative one. Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele (2008) pointed out that researchers have studied the impact of CSR on a number of factors, including word of mouth, attitudes, intentions, emotional attachment, shopping in-store, loyalty and brand identification, a limited number of studies have taken into consideration the relationship between satisfaction and CSR (Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.174). The only study th at directly linked CSR to customer satisfaction was that carried out by Luo and Bhattacharya (2006). They studied Fortune 500 companies, to find that a direct relation between CSR and customer satisfaction existed. Their study identified that satisfaction as a link which create a relationship between CSR and firm market value (Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.174). The diagram below depicts the relationship between customer satisfaction, market share and CSR as studied by Luo and Bhattacharya.Source Xueming Luo C.B. Bhattacharya, 2006, Corporate Social Responsibility, Customer Satisfaction, and Market ValueDespite the direct linking, researchers found cases where CSR was found to have a negative impact on customer satisfaction. Bhattacharya and Luo (2006, cited in Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.174) found that, firms which tend to lag in the innovative process, CSR really reduced the level of customer satisfaction and, through a reduced amount of satisfaction it adver sely affected the market value. In some cases, it may be found that it is more appropriate to use customer orientated initiatives to increase satisfaction than CSR initiatives. CSR initiatives in this case could lead to wastage of precious resources which could have been used in a better way.CSR initiatives against Customer-oriented initiativesPomering and Dolnicar (2006, cited in Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.174) studied that a banks CSR initiatives indicated that customers tend to be more responsive to customer-oriented initiatives, rather than those that had a social orientation. In this study, eight CSR initiatives were proposed such as dedicating one per cent of profit to community programs and launching an indigenous scholarship program. The success of these initiatives did not match the level of satisfaction obtained from customer-oriented initiatives. Pomering and Dolnicar (2006) concluded that consumers consideration for personal well-being may outweigh their cons ideration of broader social impacts.4.2.1 CSR initiatives and Customer satisfactionIn 2004, Bhattacharya and Sen (2004, cited in Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.175) proposed six dimensions to CSR. They are listed below, as published by KLD Researchemployee miscellaneaSupporting employeesproduct impact on the environmentoverseas operationsSupporting society4.2.2 Customer oriented initiatives and customer satisfactionOn the other hand, customer-oriented initiatives for the banking sector were also classified. Chakrabarty (2006) observed that customer oriented actions for the banking sector was not the same as for other sectors. Chakrabartys (2006, cited in Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.175) research resulted into four factors that obstinate the total level of customer satisfaction amongst a sample of more than 12,000 UK retail banking customers. They are listed in order of importance as followsin-branch satisfactioneconomic satisfactionremote satisfactionATM satisfact ionLater in 2007, Manrai and Manrai (2007, in Mac Donald and Rundle-Thiele, 2008, p.175) came up with another set of four factors. In order of importance, they areProblems attributed to the personnelConcerns of a financial aspectConcerns about the in-branch environmentConvenience-related considerations